The six scripts of Islamic calligraphy, known as the aqlam-i sitta or “six pens”, form the classical canon of the art the Ottomans called hat. Mastering them was the foundation of a calligrapher’s training for centuries.
The Origins of Proportional Script
In the tenth century, the Abbasid vizier Ibn Muqla is credited with introducing a system of proportion. The height of the letter alif and the size of the rhombic dot made by the reed pen became units of measurement for every letter.
Ibn al-Bawwab refined these rules, and in the thirteenth century Yaqut al-Musta’simi, working in Baghdad, became so renowned that later calligraphers looked to him as the supreme model. Learn more in our history of calligraphy.
The Six Pens Explained
The scripts are usually grouped in pairs, a larger form with a smaller companion.
- Thuluth (sülüs): a majestic, curving script used for headings, inscriptions and monumental compositions.
- Naskh (nesih): its smaller partner, clear and legible, became the standard script for copying the Qur’an.
- Muhaqqaq: a stately script with long horizontal strokes, favoured for large Qur’ans in earlier centuries.
- Rayhani: a finer, smaller version of muhaqqaq.
- Tawqi (tevki): developed for chancery use, with letters that often connect fluidly.
- Riqa (rika): the smaller companion to tawqi, frequently used for colophons and closing lines.
The Ottoman Contribution
Ottoman calligraphers revered the six pens and gave them a new elegance. Şeyh Hamdullah, the teacher of Sultan Bayezid II, developed a refined style that became the basis of the Ottoman school.
In the seventeenth century, Hafız Osman further perfected naskh, and his manner became a model for later Qur’an copyists. Over time, thuluth and naskh dominated Ottoman practice, while muhaqqaq and rayhani were used less often.
Learning the Scripts
Students learned through meşk, copying exercises set by a master. After years of study, a student could receive an icazet, a licence permitting them to sign their work.
The reed pen, called kalem, was cut at an angle suited to each script, and ink was usually made from soot. This disciplined path explains the consistency of classical Ottoman calligraphy.
Recognising the Scripts
For collectors, a first step is to compare scale and rhythm. Thuluth is grand and sweeping, naskh compact and even, muhaqqaq stretched and upright. Our calligraphy category offers a place to study these forms closely.
Beyond the Six Pens
Other scripts also flourished outside the canon. Ta’liq and its refined form nasta’liq became the favoured scripts for Persian poetry, while the Ottomans developed divani for chancery documents and rika, in a later simplified form, for everyday writing.
The six pens nevertheless remained the measure of a calligrapher’s skill. A master was expected to demonstrate command of them before experimenting with other forms, and many celebrated works, such as calligraphic exercises and Qur’an copies, show the six scripts side by side so that their relationships can be studied.
Studying a master’s exercise sheet side by side with a finished panel shows how rigorously these proportions were applied, and why the six pens are still taught to calligraphy students today.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the six scripts of Islamic calligraphy?
They are thuluth (sülüs), naskh (nesih), muhaqqaq, rayhani, tawqi (tevki) and riqa (rika). Together they are called the aqlam-i sitta, or six pens.
Who systematised proportional script?
The tenth-century Abbasid vizier Ibn Muqla is credited with a system of proportion based on the rhombic dot and the alif. Ibn al-Bawwab and Yaqut al-Musta’simi refined the scripts further.
Why is Şeyh Hamdullah important?
Şeyh Hamdullah, working in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, developed an influential Ottoman interpretation of the six scripts and is regarded as a founding master of Ottoman calligraphy.
